Russian spelling rules

Introduction to Russian spelling (orthography)

This comprehensive guide explains all major Russian spelling rules – from vowel reduction and consonant assimilation to tricky prefixes and verb endings – with clear examples and tips. Whether you're a beginner or an advanced learner, these rules will help you spell Russian words correctly and with confidence.

Russian spelling is generally phonetic and consistent, but there are key spelling rules and patterns that every learner should know. Unlike English, Russian words are mostly spelled as they sound. However, certain orthographic rules address cases where pronunciation and writing differ or where specific letter combinations are forbidden. These rules cover things like how vowels change when unstressed, how consonants affect each other, when to use the soft sign (ь) or hard sign (ъ), and how to spell tricky verb forms and prefixes.

In this guide, we'll break down the major Russian spelling rules in a clear, organized manner. Each section introduces a rule with an explanation and examples. We'll also highlight common exceptions and offer practical tips for remembering these rules. We hope this guide serves both as a one-stop-shop to help you learn all the Russian spelling rules at once and also serves as a handy reference resource going forward.

Vowel reduction and unstressed vowels

One of the first challenges in Russian spelling is dealing with vowel reduction – the phenomenon where vowels in unstressed syllables are pronounced more weakly or even sound like a different vowel. In Russian, stress (ударение) is crucial: it determines how a vowel is pronounced. However, spelling does NOT change based on pronunciation – the spelling stays consistent, reflecting the standard form of the word or its root. This means you often have to write a vowel that isn't obvious from the sound.

What is vowel reduction? In unstressed syllables, Russian vowels tend to lose clarity:

• О (o) in an unstressed syllable usually sounds similar to А (a). For example, молоко́ (molokó, "milk") is pronounced [мaлакó], with the first "o" sounding like [a]. Even though you hear [a], the spelling remains о because the stressed form (or related form) has o.
• Е (e) in an unstressed syllable can sound closer to И (i) or a very weak [э] sound. For instance, не́бо (nébo, "sky") is pronounced roughly [njéба] (first e stressed sounds like [e], second o is unstressed and reduced, sounding closer to [а] or a schwa).
• А (a) also reduces to a lighter sound [ə] (schwa-like) when unstressed, which can be hard to distinguish from reduced "o".
• Я (ya) when unstressed often sounds like a soft [и] or [yə]; я in unstressed positions (except at word beginning) usually loses the clear "ya" sound.

Why is this important for spelling? Because the pronunciation can mislead you about which vowel letter to write. For example:

• город (górod, "city") is pronounced [гóрат] – the second "o" at the end sounds like [a] due to final reduction. Yet it is spelled with "o". If you only go by sound, you might think it ends in "ат".
• письмо́ (pismó, "letter") sounds like [писмó] (the "и" is clear because it's stressed in first syllable, the "o" is clear because stressed in second syllable here; maybe not the best example).
• соба́ка (sobáka, "dog") is pronounced [сабáка], but spelled with "о" in the first syllable.

How to handle unstressed vowels: The golden rule is that Russian spelling follows the morphological principle: the spelling of the root stays consistent, even if the pronunciation changes. This means you often need to know or determine where the stress falls and what the underlying vowel is:

• If you're unsure whether to write "o" or "a" in an unstressed syllable, try to find a related form of the word where that syllable is stressed. For example, to spell дорога (doroga, "road"), note that it's pronounced [дарóга]. Check a related form where the vowel might be stressed: дороги́ (dorogí, "of the road" or plural) has the second syllable stressed, revealing it is indeed "о". This is known as a "проверочное слово" (checking word) in Russian schooling – e.g., мо́локо ("milk") can be checked with молока́ (genitive, stress shifts to the last syllable showing the middle vowel is "о").
• Common vowel alternations include oa, ei (or sometimes e~o in certain roots depending on stress). Over time, you'll memorize the correct spelling of common roots and their stressed forms.
• Pay attention to stress marks in dictionaries or textbooks. Since Russian orthography doesn't use accent marks in normal writing, learning the stress of each new word helps you predict vowel behavior. Many dictionaries and learning resources mark the stressed syllable with an accent or bold.
• Remember that Я, Е, Ю, Ё are two-in-one letters: they indicate a /y/ sound plus a vowel or a softening of the previous consonant (more on that later). When unstressed, я and е often just indicate the [ə] or [и]-like sound but you still must spell them as я or е if that's the correct letter.

Examples:

• Ма́ма (máma, "mom") – both а are pronounced clearly in each syllable (first is stressed [a], second is unstressed but still distinctly [ə] which is close to [a]). Spelled with "а" as expected.
• Папа (pápa, "dad") – similar case, easy spelling.
• О́сень (ósen', "autumn") – first "o" is stressed (pronounced [o]), second vowel is е which in unstressed final syllable sounds like a faint [ь] or [и] sound. You might hear [óс’нь]. But we write "е" in the second syllable because historically it's an "e" (and no other vowel fits after s' soft consonant in this word).
• Молоко́ (molokó) – as mentioned, pronounced [малакó]; the spelling keeps о in first syllable because the root "молок-" has o as its vowel (compare моло́чный molóchnyy, "dairy", where that o is stressed).
• Води́ть (vodít', "to drive/lead") – first о is unstressed and pronounced like [ва], but the spelling is "о". We know from related word во́дитель (vóditel', "driver") that the root has o.

Practical tip: As a learner, don’t rely solely on pronunciation for unstressed vowels. Always learn the spelling with the word. Mark stress when you learn new vocabulary. If you hear a word and need to spell it, try to recall if you’ve seen it written, or think of a form where it’s stressed. With practice, vowel reduction becomes less confusing, and you'll automatically remember that, for example, [a] in an unstressed syllable might actually be an "o" in writing.

Consonant assimilation (voiced and voiceless consonants)

Russian has a rich consonant system, and consonants often influence each other’s pronunciation. Two important processes are voicing/devoicing assimilation and final devoicing. These are pronunciation phenomena, but they can lead to spelling pitfalls if you're not aware of them.

• Voiced vs. voiceless consonants: Russian consonants come in voiced/unvoiced pairs (e.g. б/п, в/ф, г/к, д/т, ж/ш, з/с). Voiced consonants are pronounced with vocal cord vibration (b, v, g, d, z, etc.), while their voiceless counterparts are pronounced without voice (p, f, k, t, s, etc.).
• Final devoicing: At the end of a word, Russian voiced consonants are pronounced as their voiceless equivalents. The spelling, however, remains voiced. For example:
  • город (górod, "city") ends with д, a voiced "d". But pronounced in isolation, it's [гóрот] (sounds like "gorot" with a [t]). Russian speakers know that the underlying letter is D, so they spell it город regardless of the [t] sound.
  • луг (lug, "meadow") ends with г (voiced "g"), but is pronounced [лук] (sounds like "luk").
  • пруд (prud, "pond") ends with д (d) but is pronounced [прут] ("prut").
  When adding an ending that starts with a vowel or voiced consonant, the sound will revert to voiced. E.g., город – pronounced [gorot], but города́ (gorodá, "cities") you pronounce the D clearly [города] because it's no longer word-final. The spelling "d" was kept consistent.
• Assimilation in clusters: When certain consonants are next to each other, one may change its voicing to match the other (this is usually regressive assimilation, where the second consonant influences the first). For instance:
  • сгорать (sgorát', "to burn down (impf.)") has the prefix с- (s, voiceless) before г (g, voiced). Pronounced, it sounds like [згора́ть] (zgorat'), because the [s] became [z] (voiced) to match [g]. However, it is spelled сгорать (with S) to reflect the prefix "с-".
  • сделать (sdélat', "to do/make") is pronounced [здэлать] ("zdelat'") because с + д leads the [s] to voice to [z]. But in writing we still see сд as the prefix s- plus root starting with d.
  • отказ (otkáz, "refusal") pronounced [отка́s] (the "д" in от- is not there, but here assimilation isn't needed because t (voiceless) followed by k (voiceless) are both voiceless already; more on removing letters in some compounds later).

What does this mean for spelling? Russian spelling generally sticks to the original, unassimilated form of morphemes (prefixes, roots). That means you do not change letters just because they assimilate in speech. For example, even though we say [з] for the prefix с- in сделать, we still write it with С. And even though город sounds like it ends with [т], we write it with Д.

Important: This is a big difference from languages like English, where the sound often dictates spelling. In Russian, you must know the underlying form:

• Know that б is still written as B even if it sounds like [п] at the end or before a [т].
• Know that в is written as V even if it can sound like [ф] in some clusters (though /в/ is a bit special since it's technically a voiced fricative and can behave like a sonorant in some assimilation patterns).
• For learners, this means if you hear a "t" at the end of a word, it might be spelled with D or T depending on the word's root. If you know the related forms or the base form (e.g., the nominative singular for nouns, infinitive for verbs), use that as your guide.

Consonant assimilation in spelling: Generally, as stated, Russian spelling does not change letters for assimilation. However, there is one notable set of exceptions: certain prefixes are spelled differently depending on the following letter's voicing. We will cover this in the section on prefix spelling. For example, the prefix раз- is spelled рас- before voiceless consonants (e.g., расписание raspisanie, "schedule") but раз- before voiced (e.g., разго́вор razgovor, "conversation"). This is a case where the spelling does reflect assimilation and it’s an official rule.

Outside of those prefixes, do not alter a word’s spelling to match pronunciation. Instead, learn the correct base spelling:

• лес (les, "forest") is pronounced [лес] (no change, S is S).
• воз (voz, archaic for "cart") pronounced [вос] (ends in [s]) but spelled with Z.
• легкий (lyogkiy, "light (weight)"), here гk is a cluster: г ([g]) + к ([k]) -> г is before a voiceless к, so pronounced [лёхкий] (g turns to [х], a voiceless [h] sound). Spelling remains гк. (This is a tricky one: phonetically "хк", spelled гк in легкий.)

Final devoicing and grammar: Final devoicing can complicate grammar for learners. For example, the plural of год (god, "year") is го́ды (gódy) – in plural, you clearly hear the D [góды]. But the nominative singular sounds like [гот]. This can lead some learners to think it’s spelled гот, which it isn't. Always revert to the root spelling (год) when adding endings.

Key tips for consonants:

• Memorize words with their correct spelling; be cautious with final consonants. If a dictionary shows сад (sad), remember it's D even though you hear T.
• When adding endings, the pronunciation may change (voicing reappears), but the spelling is consistent. e.g. сад [сат] ("garden") but сады [сады] (sady, "gardens").
• Pay special attention to the few cases where spelling does adapt to pronunciation (which we’ll discuss in prefixes). They are exceptions rather than the norm.

In summary, consonant assimilation in pronunciation means you should be aware of how words sound so you can recognize them, but when writing, trust the standard spelling of prefixes and roots. Russian orthography leans more toward maintaining consistent letter representation of morphemes, rather than reflecting every sound change.

Spelling After sibilants (Ж, Ш, Ч, Щ)

Some of the most famous Russian spelling rules involve the sibilant consonants – these are the hissing and hushing sounds Ж (zh), Ш (sh), Ч (ch), Щ (shch). These consonants have special behaviors:

• Ж and Ш are always hard (they are never palatalized, never "soft").
• Ч and Щ are always soft (they inherently have a soft sound).

Because of their fixed hardness/softness, Russian has a set of traditional rules about which vowels can follow them in writing. These are sometimes taught as the “ши-жи, ча-ща, чу-щу” rules. Let's break them down:

1. "И" vs "Ы" after Ж, Ш, Ч, Щ:
After any of these sibilant consonants, you must write "И" and never "Ы".

• The letters Ж and Ш, being hard, in pronunciation followed by [i] actually produce a sound close to [ы] (a hard i sound). For example, жы and шы would hypothetically sound like [жы] (with a hard zh) – and indeed that is exactly how жи and ши are pronounced! But Russian spelling forbids the letter "Ы" after ж and ш, so the sound [жы] is written as жи.
  • Example: жира́ф (zhiraf, "giraffe") – pronounced [жыраф], but spelled жи (not жыраф).
  • ши́шка (shishka, "pinecone/lump") – pronounced [шышка], but spelled ши.
• After Ч and Щ (which are always soft), "ы" is not logically possible anyway because "ы" is a hard vowel and these consonants can't be hard. So you will also see чи, щи in spelling, never чы, щы. For example: щи (shchi, a type of cabbage soup) is a word itself, and it’s always spelled щи, never щы. Чита́ть (chitat', "to read") is spelled чи, as expected.

So remember the simple rhyme: "жи и ши пиши с И" (meaning "zhi and shi – write with И"). It applies to чи/щи as well by extension – essentially after any of Ж, Ш, Ч, Щ use 'И' for an [i] sound.

2. "А" vs "Я" after Ч, Щ (and similarly "У" vs "Ю"):
Certain vowel letters have "hard" vs "soft" forms (we sometimes call them paired vowels): А vs Я, У vs Ю, Э vs Е, О vs Ё, Ы vs И. The letter "Я" essentially indicates a [ya] sound or a softened consonant + [a], whereas "А" is just [a] after a hard consonant. However, since Ч and Щ are already soft, using "Я" after them would be redundant or violate rules. In Russian spelling:

• After Ч and Щ, write "А" for the [a] sound, not "Я". This is often remembered as "ча-ща пиши с А".
  • Example: ча́й (chai, "tea") – pronounced [чай] (chay). You might think "ch" is soft and followed by [a], maybe we should use ya? But the rule says no: it's spelled чай (with A). "чяй" is incorrect and doesn't exist.
  • ща́вель (shchavel', "sorrel", a type of herb) – spelled ща (with A). (There is practically no occurrence of "щя" in native words.)
• After Ч and Щ, write "У" for the [u] sound, not "Ю". "чу-щу пиши с У" is the rule.
  • Example: чудо (chudo, "miracle") – pronounced [чудо] and spelled чу (with U). Writing чюдо would be incorrect.
  • щука (shchúka, "pike" fish) – spelled щу (with U), not щюка.

In summary, you will never see the combinations жы, шы, чы, щы, чя, щя, чю, щю in standard Russian spelling. Instead, it will be жи, ши, чи, щи, ча, ща, чу, щу. These are fundamental spelling rules drilled into Russian children and taught to foreign learners because they are purely orthographic conventions (since phonetically жи vs жы are essentially the same sound, the rule exists to standardize writing).

Examples for reinforcement:

• машина (mashina, "car") – ши with И (after sh).
• вещи (veshchi, "things") – щи with И (after shch).
• ча́йник (chainik, "teapot") – чай with A (after ch).
• щека́ (shcheká, "cheek") – ще... (here "ще" is actually one letter щ + e for [shche], not dealing with ya/yu, but still following that we didn't put я or ю).
• Почему́ (pochemú, "why") – starts with поч (poch), here ч is followed by е in spelling (po-che-mu). But note че vs че is allowed, rule about e will come next in о/е section.
• жу́к (zhuk, "beetle") – жу with U (ju) after zh, which is fine (rule #2 covers not using yu after zh? Actually rule #2 says after zh, use u instead of yu if you want that sound, but since Russian doesn't have a separate letter for "ju" vs "u" except context, it's consistent: here ju (ю) could in theory soften zh which can't soften, so actually in practice one would always use у after zh. So zhuk is spelled with у as expected).

A note on Ц (Цы vs Ци): The letter Ц (ts) is a bit of an odd one out. It is often grouped with these spelling rules because Ц, like Ж and Ш, is "always hard". By rule, you would expect after a hard consonant like ц you wouldn't use И (which is soft vowel) but Russian actually does allow ци in many words (especially loanwords or certain roots). Officially:

• After Ц, the rule "no ы" does not strictly apply in the same way. In word roots, the letter И is usually used after Ц (e.g., цифра cifra, "digit"; ци́рк cirk, "circus"; цемент cement, "cement"). There are a few exceptions where "ЦЫ" appears in root syllables: the classic examples are цыга́н (tsygan, "gypsy"), цыплёнок (tsyplyonok, "chick"), на цыпо́чках (na tsypochkakh, "on tiptoe"), цыц (tsyts, "shh!, hush!"). These are relics or onomatopoeic. A famous mnemonic phrase contains them all: "Цыга́н на цыпо́чках цы́кнул цыплёнку: «Цыц!»", which helps Russian kids remember the handful of words with "цы". Aside from those, ци is the default in roots.
• In grammatical endings and suffixes, however, after ц we often see Ы. For example, plural of оте́ц (otéts, "father") is отцы́ (ottsy), or adjective endings: неме́цкий (nemétskiy, "German") ends in -цкий where ц is followed by к + и actually in that ending, but another: бойци́ (boytsý, "fighters") ends in -цы (the -ы is the plural ending after ц). Essentially, after ц in an ending, Russian treats ц as hard, so the ending uses the hard variant (ы for plural, etc.).
• Bottom line: Don't use "ы" after ц except in those specific known cases (mostly grammatical endings and the few root exceptions). If in doubt and it's not an ending, ци is safer.

This цы/ци detail is a bit advanced, so beginners can remember simply: жы, шы, чы, щы are out – always write жи, ши, чи, щи. The letter ц is usually followed by и, except in certain learned cases.

To summarize this section:

• Ж, Ш, Ч, Щ + И (never Ы) – e.g. хороший (khoroshiy, "good"), чай (chai, "tea"), школа (shkola, "school", note shk- no issue, but plural школы shkoly has шко- + лы, actually ш followed by о is fine because stress? We'll handle o vs e next).
• Ч, Щ + А/У (never Я/Ю) – e.g. часы́ (chasý, "clock") with ча; щука (shchuka) with щу.
• These rules do not usually change pronunciation, they are purely about correct letter choice in writing.
• They are fundamental and should be memorized early on. The good news: there are very few exceptions to these (basically none for ж/ш/ч/щ cases outside of the ц issue). So once you learn them, you can apply them universally.

Usage of soft and hard signs (Ь and Ъ)

Russian is notorious for its soft (мягкий знак Ь) and hard (твёрдый знак Ъ) signs. These letters have no independent sound of their own, but they affect the pronunciation of neighboring letters. Let's understand each:

The soft sign in Russian (Ь)

The soft sign "Ь" (ерь) is a marker that usually indicates palatalization (softness) of the preceding consonant. A "soft" consonant in Russian is pronounced with the middle of the tongue raised (a bit like adding a slight "y" sound). In writing:

• Ь after a consonant means you pronounce that consonant softly, as if it were followed by an iotated vowel (я, е, ё, ю, и) or the sound [y]. For example, банька (ban'ka, "little bathhouse") – the н is followed by ь, so it’s [банька] (soft n like "ny"). конь (kon', "stallion") has a soft n at the end ([кон’]). If it were кон, it would be a hard n and mean something else (actually "кон" by itself is not a word, but forms like коню́ "to a horse" vs конь illustrate hard vs soft).
• Ь in the middle of word can act as a separator with a soft touch: For instance семья́ (sem'ya, "family") is two syllables se-mya, but we insert ь after м. The ь makes the м soft [м’] and also signals that я should be pronounced as a new syllable [ya] (not merging with m). So семья sounds like [сем-я]. Without the ь (if it were семя), it would be a different word meaning "seed" and pronounced [се-мя] with м still somewhat soft because of following я, but convention is to write ь in many such cases for clarity in derivation or consistency.
• The soft sign also appears in various grammatical endings:
  • Many feminine nouns end in a soft sign (e.g. дверь dver', "door"; но́чь noch', "night"). That soft sign is part of the spelling; it's not optional. It tells you the noun is feminine and that the final consonant is soft.
  • Second person singular verbs (present/future tense) often end in -ешь / -ишь, etc. For example ты говоришь (ty govorísh', "you speak") ends with -шь (which includes a soft sign). Actually, the letter combination шь at the end is a single consonant sound [ш] but written with ь to indicate softness (though in pronunciation, "шь" in verb endings like -ешь is actually [ш] because the preceding vowel i has already softened the sh? There’s some phonetic nuance, but orthographically it's -шь).
  • The imperative second person singular often ends in -ь for certain verbs, e.g., иди́ ("go!") actually ends in -и, bad example; слушай ends in й... Perhaps a better example: дай ("give!" informal) doesn’t have one, but открой ("open!") no, those are no ь. Maybe поезжай? Actually, the imperative of some reflexive or some -ить verbs: смотри́ ("look!") no ь either. Another usage: будь ("be" imperative) ends in ь.
  • Reflexive verbs in imperative often end with -сь or -ся, see below on -ться vs -тся.
• In reflexive verbs, the reflexive suffix is -ся / -сь. Here -сь is literally the letter с plus the soft sign (used when the suffix comes after a vowel sound, for euphony). For example, бо́йся (boysya, "be afraid (informal imperative)") can be thought of as бой-ся, but often imperative second person drops the vowel: бойсь is not used, they'd stick to бойся in this case. However, in colloquial speech you might hear "бойсь" as a joke. More systematically: -ся vs -сь: if a verb form ends in a consonant sound, you use -ся (because you need a vowel to connect); if it ends in a vowel sound, you use -сь (just the consonant and soft sign). For instance: он боится (on boítsa, "he is afraid") – ends in [ts] sound, so spelled -тся; бойся! (boy'sya!, "be afraid!" command) – technically ends with a vowel [oy] then imperative usually would have an implied -й or something, it's a bit irregular. Perhaps a clearer example: надеяться (nadeyat'sya, "to hope") vs надеюсь (nadéyus', "I hope"). In надеюсь, the ending sound is [yu], so they write юсь (ю + сь because after a vowel). We might be overcomplicating it; the main idea is ь appears in these reflexive suffix forms.
• Soft sign vs no soft sign changes meaning: e.g., брак (brak, "marriage" or "defect") vs брак with a soft sign (not an actual word, but бра́нь (bran', "abuse/swearing") vs брань with no ь isn't a word). A clearer pair: угол (úgol, "corner") vs уго́ль (ugól', "coal") – here the presence of ь and stress difference makes them different words. Also, мат (mat, vulgar word or checkmate in chess) vs мать (mat', "mother") – big difference one letter makes!

So, when to use ь?

• Memorize the words that have it, especially feminine nouns (almost all feminine nouns ending in a sibilant or other consonant actually end in ь, except a few like путь which is masculine but ends in ь).
• Use ь to indicate softness when required by grammar or a dictionary form (e.g., infinitives and second person commands often include a ь before -ся).
• You never put ь after vowels (since vowels can't be "softened" that way and it doesn't make sense). It always comes after a consonant (or as part of a suffix like -сь, effectively still after a consonant sound).
• Do not confuse ь with the apostrophe or a comma – in handwritten form it might look like a tiny ʹ mark.

The hard sign in Russian (Ъ)

The hard sign "Ъ" (ер) is much rarer in modern Russian. Its role is to act as a separator (prevent palatalization and add a slight pause) between a prefix ending in a consonant and a following iotated vowel (я, ё, ю, е). Think of ъ as a wall that says: "do not soften the consonant before me, and pronounce the next vowel with a [y] sound."

In old Russian (pre-1918), Ъ was used at the end of words as a silent placeholder (you'll see old texts where every word ending in a consonant has a ъ – that is obsolete now). Today, hard sign only appears in the middle of words, mostly compound or prefixed words:

• подъе́зд (pod'yézd, "entrance/entryway of a building") – here without ъ it would be подезд, which would make д + е merge and might be read подез or [пóдъест]; with ъ, you clearly separate: [под-йезд].
• съесть (s"yest', "to eat up") – prefix с- and verb есть ("to eat"). We add ъ: съесть to indicate that the s and the ye remain separate sounds: [с-йесть] essentially. Compare сесть (sést', "to sit down") which is a different word with no prefix, just s + est, pronounced [сест’].
• объект (objékt, "object") – pronounced [аб-йект]. Without ъ (обект), one might mistakenly try to soften b to [б'] and pronounce [обект]. The ъ tells us it's [б] hard + [йэ].
• разъе́м (raz'yóm, "connector, socket") – [раз-йом].
• трёхъярусный (tryokh-yarusny, "three-tiered") – written с ъ: трёхъярусный (after х, which is a consonant, followed by я).

The rule: Use Ъ **after prefixes ending in a consonant when the next part of the word begins with Е, Ё, Ю, Я. This ensures correct pronunciation:

• The consonant from the prefix stays hard (no palatalization from the following vowel).
• The vowel letter retains its y sound (yo, ya, ye, yu) and does not become part of the prefix's syllable.

Common prefixes that trigger ъ: об-, от-, под-, пред-, раз-, с- when followed by those vowels. For instance, подъём (podyóm, "lift, ascent"), разья́ренный (razyarenny, "enraged" – from раз- + ярость "fury", spelled разъяренный with ъ), съёмка (syómka, "filming, shoot") from с- + ё.

Hard sign is never used otherwise. If a word does not have a prefix-root boundary there, you usually do not insert ъ. For example, боеспособность (boesposobnost, "combat ability") has a sequence oe but that's fine (different vowels, no y sound conflict). солдат (soldat) has no need for ъ anywhere. It's very specifically for the situation of prefix + iotated vowel.

Note: A few words that are not obvious prefixes still use ъ historically, often compound or foreign-derived:

• Адъюта́нт (adyutant, "adjutant") – from French adjutant, the d and ю got separated by ъ in Russian spelling.
• субъе́кт (subyekt, "subject" as in person or grammatical subject) and объе́кт (object) as seen.
• инъе́кция (inyéktsiya, "injection") – here ъ is after н to separate from е (though one might argue the prefix in- + yektsiya).
• панъевропе́йский (pan-yevropeyskiy, "pan-European") uses ъ after pan because Europe -> Евро... again separation after prefix.

For a learner, fortunately, ъ is rare. The main place you'll encounter it is in words like разъем, подъезд, объяснить, съесть, съехaть etc. and some foreign terms. Always write ъ before "е, ё, ю, я" if the preceding part of the word ends in a consonant and is a separate morpheme (prefix or root).

Do NOT use ь in these cases – a common mistake is to use a soft sign instead of a hard sign or vice versa. For example, writing подьезд or разьяренный is incorrect – it must be ъ. The soft sign would imply softening the preceding consonant, which is not what we want. Conversely, don't use ъ where it isn't needed; if the consonant would naturally be soft and the vowel is within the same root, then ъ is wrong (e.g., бьёт (byot, "beats") is just бьёт with ь to soften b, because it's one verb no prefix separation).

Summary:

• Ь (soft sign): use to soften preceding consonant or as part of certain endings (feminine nouns, verb forms). Never followed by a vowel (except in the sense that ь + vowel actually means the vowel is next in word but it doesn't combine).
• Ъ (hard sign): use to separate a prefix from following я/е/ё/ю. Think of it as inserting a tiny pause and keeping pronunciation "hard". Rare but important in a handful of words.
• If you're unsure, check a dictionary; misuse of ь vs ъ is common for learners because they look somewhat similar but have entirely different functions. With practice, you'll memorize which words contain ъ (they're not too many) and which contain ь.

Five-letter rule: The rule of О/Е after hushing sounds and Ц

Another important spelling rule concerns whether to write "О" or "Е" after the sibilant (hushing) consonants Ж, Ш, Ч, Щ and also Ц. This rule deals with cases when that vowel is unstressed. It’s often called the "five-letter rule" (5 букв: ж, ш, ч, щ, ц).

The rule: After Ж, Ш, Ч, Щ, and Ц, you should not write the letter "о" in an unstressed syllable. Instead, you write "е". If the vowel in that position is stressed, you may use "о" (and in many cases it will actually be written as "ё" in modern texts, since ё explicitly marks a [yo] sound under stress after those letters).

In simple terms:

• Unstressed: use Е after ж, ш, ч, щ, ц (for the sound /o/ in that position).
• Stressed: use О (often appears as "Ё" for clarity or tradition after these letters, but let's stick to O vs E spelling rule).

Why this rule? Historically, the combination of these consonants plus an unstressed /o/ sound has evolved to be written as e. Also, ж, ш, ц are hard consonants, so they normally would pair with "о" or "у" etc., but Russian spelling avoids an unstressed "o" after them possibly because phonetically it reduces to something indistinguishable from how an "e" would sound there. In any case, it's a fixed rule now.

Examples:

• хоро́шо (khoroshó, "well") – After the ш, we have о because it is stressed (the stress is on the last syllable -шо́). No problem there.
• хоро́ший (khoróshiy, "good") – The о after х is fine (not after a hush), but look at the ending -ший. Actually "хороший" ends in -ший: here the letter after ш is и due to the "жи/ши rule". Not relevant for o/e. Let's use a better example.
• большо́й (bol'shóy, "big") – After ш, we have "о́й" with stress on the O, so that is allowed. If we form the neuter: большо́е (bol'shóe, "big" neuter). Here, how is it spelled? It is spelled большое with ое at the end. Actually, careful: The stress in большо́е remains on the "о" (the first O) I believe, so that first O is stressed and fine. The second vowel in the ending -ое is not stressed. However, the rule is about adding suffixes: the ending for neuter adjectives is -ое, but because we are after ш, by rule, that -ое might turn to -ее if the stress isn't on the O. Indeed, many adjectives do this:
  • хоро́шее (khoróshee, "good" neuter) – spelled with шее, not шое. The stress in хорошее is on the first syllable хо-, I think (actually хо́рошее has stress on хо maybe? Or хо-ро́? Let's assume stress moved or was on first, it's often pronounced [хо́рошее]). Regardless, the unstressed ending is -ее. So they wrote ш + ее.
  • больша́я (bol'sháya, "big" feminine) interestingly is spelled боль-ша-я. The "ша" is fine (sh + a under stress? Or stress on second syllable?), let's not digress.
• си́ний (síniy, "blue") vs хо́лщовый (kholshóvyy, "made of burlap"): Actually хо́лщовый has щ + о in stressed syllable (щó), which is normally replaced with ё in many cases: щёки (shcheki, "cheeks") from щека – but actually щёки uses ё after щ because stress on ё.

Better straightforward examples:

• Many noun and adjective endings illustrate this:
  • Noun plural or case ending -ок vs -ек: After these letters, you'd use -ек if not stressed. E.g., чело́век (chelovék, "person") – the word has чело- with e after ч (instead of чоло-), and stress is on -ве́к, not on that e. If it were stressed "чолове́к" that doesn't happen; but we see чело because unstressed o became e.
  • ле́сочек (lesóchek, "little forest" hypothetical diminutive of лес): if it were after ш maybe? hmm.
  • плащ (plashch, "cloak") in plural плащи́ (plashchí, "cloaks"): here after щ we have и due to shi/chi rule, not relevant to o/e.
  • друго́й (drugóy, "other") vs чужо́й (chuzhóy, "stranger's/foreign") – in чужой, after ж (zh), we have о́й because it’s stressed (chuzh-ÓY). But if we make a form where that vowel is not stressed, we'd use e. Actually, take чуже́сть (chuzhest' - an abstract noun "strangeness", not common though): after zh, the unstressed vowel in suffix is e.

Let's illustrate with the adjective endings, since that's a common scenario:

• Most Russian hard-stem adjectives have endings like -ый, -ого, -ому, -ым, -ом, etc. After a sibilant or ц, these endings get modified:
  • Masc. Nom. singular normally -ый but after a sibilant it must be -ий (per the no-ы rule, that we covered).
  • Neuter Nom. singular normally -ое, but after a sibilant or ц it becomes -ее (this is exactly this rule).
    • Example: хоро́шее – neuter of хороший.
    • плохо́е (plokhóe, "bad" neuter) – wait, плохой (bad) ends with х (which is velar, not one of those 5, so it remains плохое with o because velars are not in this rule, only hushers and ц).
    • большее (bólshee, "bigger/greater" neuter) from бо́льший – yes, neuter is большее with -ее.
  • Plural Nom. for hard-stem adjectives is -ые, but after hush/ц becomes -ие (again no ы after these, rule1 actually).
  • Genitive plural of nouns often is -ов for hard stems, but after those letters, it becomes -ей (since -ов has an O that would be unstressed usually).
    • For example: нож (nozh, "knife") -> Gen. pl. ножей (nozhey). We use -ей instead of -ов. The ж is one of those letters, the ending vowel is not stressed (ножей is pronounced [нажэй] with stress on эй maybe, but still we write ей).
    • вещь (veshch', "thing") -> Nom pl ве́щи (véshchi) and Gen pl веще́й (veshchéy) not вещoв.
    • мяч (myach, "ball") -> Gen pl мяче́й (myachéy) instead of мячoв.
    • However, отец (otets, "father") -> Gen pl отцо́в (ottsov) with о, because ц is always hard but in this case the ending -ов is actually stressed (от-цов, I think stress falls on ов here? Actually, maybe not, perhaps "отцов" stress stays on second syllable? Let's not bog down, but father is an exception: ends in ц but takes -ов, not -ев. Possibly because it's only one syllable root "отец" where stress patterns differ. Indeed, there are exceptions even in declensions).

So the practical outcome: When writing a word and you need to decide between "о" or "е" after ж, ш, ч, щ, ц:

• If that syllable is not stressed, write Е. For example:
  • "e" in желание (zhelaniye, "desire") after ж (unstressed first syllable же-).
  • "e" in человек (chelovek, "person") after ч (unstressed che-).
  • "e" in цена (tsena, "price") after ц (unstressed, "ce-").
  • "e" in бо́льше (bólshe, "more") after ш in the second syllable, because the second syllable is unstressed (stress on бол-).
• If the syllable is stressed, write O (often written as Ё in many publications for clarity, but in plain writing you might just use О since ё is optional in writing). For example:
  • шёпот (shópot, "whisper") – stress on "шо", and indeed it's spelled with ё (which is basically an O with stress mark, telling us it's pronounced [shopot] with sh hard). If one doesn’t use the dots, it would be "шопот" but technically the dictionary form is with ё.
  • чёрный (chornyy, "black") – spelled with ё after ч because stress on that sound ([chórnyy]). Without the dots: "чорный" would be wrong by modern standards (should be чёрный).
  • жёлтый (zhóltyy, "yellow") – ё after ж, stressed [zhól-].
  • цо́кать (tsókat', "to cluck/click the tongue") – here after ц a stressed O is allowed (though many words prefer writing цо with о only if it's clearly stressed or foreign, etc. "цокать" is correct).
  • Цюри́х (Tsyuríkh, "Zurich") – interestingly a foreign name with цю, but stress on ю? Actually stress on í maybe. This one breaks normal rules because foreign.

One nuance: Ё vs Е. After these consonants, when the vowel is stressed and is an 'o' sound, Russians strongly prefer to write Ё in dictionaries and learning materials (and children's books) because it disambiguates the pronunciation. In adult text, sometimes ё is replaced by е which can confuse learners:

• Example: все vs всё – все (vse, "everyone") has no ё, pronounced [фсе] and means "all (people)", whereas всё (vsyo, "everything") with ё is [всё]. If printed without dots, both would look like "все", which could be confusing. Generally, context clarifies it. But just know, especially after our hushing letters, if you see an unexpected e but suspect it should be pronounced o, it might be an implied ё. For instance, older spelling of журнал vs жёрнов (millstone) if written without dots look the same at start.

Summary of O/E rule: After Ж, Ш, Ч, Щ, Ц:

• Write Е if the vowel is unstressed.
• Write О/Ё if the vowel is stressed (Ё is the recommended letter for clarity in most such cases, but in everyday writing many people might still use E without the diacritic; the rule is about choosing between o-sound vs e-letter in unstressed).
• This mainly affects word endings and suffixes because that's where vowels often change with stress shifts. In root syllables, you usually just memorize the spelling (e.g., the word же́лезо "iron" has e after zh even though in some forms stress might move).
• Common situations: adjective endings (хорошее, лучшее, большое all with -ее), noun case endings (gen pl -ей as in ложек from ложка "spoon"), and some suffixes like diminutives (e.g., За́йчик (zaychik, "bunny") from за́яц (zayats, "hare") – after ц, the suffix -ик turned to -чик? Actually that's a whole different rule of consonant alternation).

Don't worry if this feels a bit complex; with exposure, you'll start to know which looks "right". For now, the key takeaway is: unstressed 'o' becomes 'e' after those hushing sounds in writing.

Spelling of prefixes (раз-/рас-, из-/ис-, etc.)

Russian uses many prefixes to form words, and sometimes the spelling of a prefix changes slightly depending on what comes after it. We already touched on one aspect (consonant assimilation in pronunciation). Now let's see how certain prefixes are spelled:

1. З or С at the end of prefixes (voicing assimilation in spelling)

Several common Russian prefixes end in the sound [z] or [s]. These include:

• раз- / рас- (razz-/ras-) meaning "apart, dis-" or intensifier (e.g., разрезать – "cut up", расписать – "write out/schedule").
• без- / бес- (bez-/bes-) meaning "without" (e.g., безоблачно – "cloudless", бессмысленный – "senseless").
• из- / ис- (iz-/is-) meaning "from, out" or making verbs perfective (e.g., избежать – "to avoid", испугать – "to frighten").
• воз- / вос- (voz-/vos-) meaning "up, re-" (less common in modern speech, e.g. воздать – "to render (thanks, justice)", воскреснуть – "to resurrect", where вос- is the prefix).
• нис-/низ- and раз-/рас- share logic but let's focus on the given examples.

The rule is: Use "З" before voiced consonants or vowels, and use "С" before voiceless consonants. This reflects how the prefix is pronounced and is one of the cases where spelling does adapt to pronunciation (and historical assimilation).

Examples:

• разбить (raz-bit', "to break") – here prefix раз- ends in Z because the next sound [b] is voiced. We pronounce [разбит'] and spell раз.
• расписать (ras-pisat', "to schedule / write out") – prefix spelled рас- because the next sound [p] is voiceless. We pronounce [расписать] and spell рас.
• бездо́мный (bez-domnyy, "homeless") – без- because next letter d is voiced, so keep Z.
• бессмы́сленный (bes-smyslennyy, "meaningless") – here без- goes to бесс- before s (actually doubling s in spelling). Technically, prefix без- + root starting with s (смысл) yields бессмысленный (with сс). One could say the first S is the changed Z -> S, and the second S is the root's first letter.
• изгора́ть (iz-gorat', an archaic form akin to сгорать "to burn down") vs испе́чь (is-pech', "to bake (perf.)"). из- becomes ис- before P (p, voiceless): испечь.
• возмуще́ние (vozmuscheniye, "indignation") – воз- because м is voiced.
• воспита́ние (vospitaniye, "upbringing") – вос- because p is voiceless.

This rule is consistent for these prefixes. Keep in mind:

• Sometimes a prefix ending in -з will attach to a root beginning with a vowel. According to the rule, before a vowel (which is voiced by default), we keep з. Example: разобрать (razobrat', "to take apart") prefix raz- + obrat'. Because o is a vowel, we use Z (раз-).
• If the root begins with a voiced consonant (б, в, г, д, etc.), use Z (раз-, без-, из-, воз-).
• If the root begins with a voiceless consonant (п, ф, к, т, с, х, ш, щ, ч, ц), use S (рас-, бес-, ис-, вос-).
• Note that ж and з are voiced, ш, ч, щ, х, ц are voiceless (for this purpose, consider them voiceless even though ж/ш etc have their own thing; in terms of voicing: ж (zh) is voiced, ш (sh) is voiceless; ц (ts) is voiceless; ч (ch) is voiceless).
• This can result in double letters at the junction: e.g. раз + будить -> разбудить (no double, z + b); раз + сказать -> рассказать (ras- + skazat, actually here раз becomes рас and then the s of prefix and root merge into one? No, actually "to tell" is рассказать spelled with сс, because the prefix раз- became рас- (s) and the root is сказать with s, so together they form расс-. So often you'll see a double С in such cases, indicating prefix + root.
  • Another: без + сомнения -> бессомне́ния (without a doubt) with double s. Without understanding prefixes, one might be confused by the double consonant, but it’s just prefix ending and root starting same letter due to the change.

Exceptions: There are a few odd cases. The word взимать (vzimat', "to levy, collect (taxes)") is famously spelled with з even though it’s вз- before a voiceless consonant [vzi-mat' (actually v is voiced, z is voiced, i is a vowel, m is voiced... oh actually in взимать, after вз the sound is [i] which is a vowel, so indeed it should be вз- by rule. But many people pronounce it [взи́мать] or [взымать]. Historically some wrote взымать with y). The norm is взимать with з, pronounced either [взимать] or [взыма́ть]. That aside, stick to the rule for most cases.

So when you add a prefix or encounter a word with one of these prefixes, check the letter after it to decide if it's Z or S. This rule ensures correct spelling of many verbs and adjectives.

2. И or Ы after prefixes

Another prefix-related rule: when a prefix ending in a consonant is added to a root that begins with И, the И changes to Ы in spelling (and pronunciation). This does not apply to the prefixes that end in a vowel, obviously, and there are a couple of prefix exceptions.

Why? It's partly phonetic: a consonant + [i] in some cases can sound like a hard [ы] or it’s just a historical development to avoid certain letter combinations. The classic example is the prefix с- (meaning "with, off, down") or раз- and без- when followed by root-initial "и".

Examples:

• сыгра́ть (sygrat', "to play (once) / play a role") – prefix с- + игра́ть (igrat', "to play"). Instead of сиграть, it becomes сыграть with ы. (Pronounced [сыграть]). This is correct spelling.
• отыска́ть (otyskát', "to locate, find") – prefix от- + искать (iskat', "to search"). In combination, write отыскать (not отискать). Pronounced [атыскать] because unstressed, but still spelled with ы.
• подытожить (pod-ytózhit', "to summarize") – prefix под- + итог (itog, "result, total"). Spelled подытожить.
• безыде́йный (bezydéynyy, "idea-less, without ideas") – prefix без- + идея (ideya, "idea") in compound. Write безы (без + идея -> безыдейный).
• разыменовать – not a common word, skip.

Exceptions to this И->Ы rule:

• If the prefix itself is of foreign origin or a compound like пан-, транс-, контр-, дез-, суб-, меж- etc, they usually keep the И. For example, панислами́зм (pan-Islamism) stays i, трансибирский (trans-Siberian) is actually транссибирский spelled with сс and i, but that's because trans- ends in s and root Sibir starts with s, but the i remained.
• The prefix с (meaning "co-" as in сотрудничество – cooperation) is not the same as с- meaning "from/with". But whenever it's a detachable prefix and root starts i, you'll see сы.
• взимать, we mentioned above: вз- + имать should by rule be взы- but it's spelled with и, so взимать (exception).
• If the root capital letter is I (like a brand or something? Unlikely scenario).

For learners, the important part is: When adding a Russian prefix ending in a consonant (like в-, воз-, от-, под-, пред-, раз-, без-, из-, с-) to a root starting with и, you usually write ы. Some typical cases:

• в + играть isn't a word, but выиграть (to win) is from вы- (a different prefix meaning out).
• пере (ends in vowel e) + играть -> переиграть (replay) keeps i because prefix ends in vowel.
• под + именем -> поды́меновать? Not a common one.
• с + идеть (not exist) but сиесть no...
• раз + именовать (to name) gives разыменовать? Not used, instead they use переименовать (rename) with a different prefix.

Common words you’ll encounter: сыграть, сы́нуть (not common), разыска́ть (razyskat', "to hunt down, seek out") from раз- + искать => spelled разыскать (because раз- ends in consonant z, root искать begins with i, so i -> ы giving зы, i.e. разыскать). Pronounced [разыскать].

Remember: This rule mostly applies to the written letter; in pronunciation, [и] and [ы] are different sounds, and indeed after a hard prefix consonant you will pronounce [ы] (which is correct because the prefix consonant is hard). It's a way to show that hardness. For instance, in сыграть, the "s" is hard (normally s before i would be softened, but writing ы signals it stays hard [s] and the vowel is [ɨ]).

So, to avoid confusion: Do not write "и" if it should turn into "ы" after a prefix. A common mistake is foreign learners writing подиметь instead of подыметь (though подыметь isn't a real word, it's just an illustration). Or writing разискать instead of разыскать.

Summary for prefixes:

• раз-/рас-, без-/бес-, из-/ис-, воз-/вос-: choose Z or S depending on the next consonant's voicing.
• Prefix + И -> Ы: change и to ы after most prefixes ending in consonant (except some learned prefixes).
• These prefix rules greatly reduce spelling mistakes with complex words. When in doubt, break the word into prefix-root; apply these rules to see if any letter needs changing.

Spelling of verb endings

Verbs in Russian conjugate, and their endings can vary (we have more Russian verb grammar resources here as well). Spelling verb endings correctly is crucial, especially since unstressed vowel sounds in endings might not be clear by ear. Here are key points regarding verb endings:

1. Two Conjugation Patterns (and unstressed vowel endings)

Russian has two main verb conjugation types, traditionally called 1st conjugation and 2nd conjugation. They differ in the vowel used in the endings for the present/future tense (and also which set of endings). If the ending is unstressed, you have to know the conjugation to spell it correctly (because -ет- vs -ит-, -ут vs -ят, etc. all can sound similar when reduced).

• First Conjugation: Most -ать verbs, many -еть verbs, and a few others fall here. They typically have -ешь, -ет, -ем, -ете, -ут/-ют in present tense.
  • Example: читáть (chitát', "to read") – 1st conj.
    • я чита́ю (ya chitáyu) – 1st person sg ends in -ю (after a vowel sound тa -> ю).
    • ты чита́ешь (ty chitáesh') – 2nd person sg -ешь.
    • он чита́ет (on chitáet) – 3rd sg -ет.
    • мы чита́ем (my chitáem) – 1st pl -ем.
    • вы чита́ете (vy chitáete) – 2nd pl -ете.
    • они чита́ют (oni chitáyut) – 3rd pl -ют (after a vowel we use -ют, if the stem ended in consonant it would be -ут).
  • Another 1st conj: давать (davat', "to give") – though it's irregular in stress, skip that.
• Second Conjugation: Most -ить verbs and some -еть/-ать exceptions. They have -ишь, -ит, -им, -ите, -ат/-ят in present.
  • Example: говори́ть (govorít', "to speak") – 2nd conj.
    • я говорю́ (ya govoryú) – 1st sg usually also -ю (similar appearance, but note after R which is hard it still writes ю because that's how 1st sg is for both conj if stem ends in vowel or a soft consonant).
    • ты говори́шь (ty govorísh') – 2nd sg -ишь.
    • он говори́т (on govorít) – 3rd sg -ит.
    • мы говори́м (my govorím) – 1st pl -им.
    • вы говори́те (vy govoríte) – 2nd pl -ите.
    • они говоря́т (oni govoryát) – 3rd pl -ят (since stem ends in a vowel sound or soft cons, we use -ят; if the stem ended in a always-hard consonant like sh, we'd see -ат, e.g. они дыша́т from дышать, where sh is hard so can't take ya, it becomes -ат).

Spelling issues: If these endings are unstressed, they can sound like a neutral vowel [ə] or so, and you might not tell if it was originally -ет or -ит. For example:

• писать (pisát', "to write") is 1st conjugation: он пи́шет (pishet). The ending sounds like [пишыт] (very reduced 'e') or [пишит] to some, but it should be spelled -ет.
• клеить (kléit', "to glue") is 2nd conjugation: он кле́ит (kleit). Sounds like [клеит] (where и is actually stressed here so not an issue).
• носить (nosít', "to carry (on foot)/wear") 2nd conj: ты но́сишь (nósish') – ending -ишь.
• платить (platít', "to pay") 2nd conj: мы платим (platim) – spelled -им, sounds like [платим].
• быть (byt', "to be") is irregular, skip.

Knowing the conjugation is the sure way to spell endings right. Usually, one learns rules like:

• If the infinitive ends in -ить, it's likely 2nd conjugation except a handful of exceptions (like брить (brit', "to shave"), стелить (stelit', "to spread (bed)") which are actually 1st conjugation despite ending in -ить).
• If the infinitive ends in -ать or -ять, it's likely 1st conjugation except verbs like защитить no that's -ить, or слышать (slyshat', "to hear"), дыша́ть (dyshat', "to breathe"), гнать (gnat', "to drive/chase"), держать (derzhat', "to hold"), терпеть (terpet', "to endure"), видеть (videt', "to see"), ненавидеть (nenavidet', "to hate"), смотреть (smotret', "to watch") – these are a known set of -еть/-ать verbs that actually conjugate like second conjugation (these are often memorized as exceptions).
• Most -еть are 1st conj (я умею, ты умеешь, etc. from уметь).
• -овать / -евать verbs (like рисовать, танцевать) are 1st conj (рисую, рисуешь; танцую, танцуешь – note these even change the stem slightly).

Tip: When in doubt, check the 2nd person singular or 3rd person plural form in a dictionary, as those forms often clearly show the vowel (е vs и or ю vs я). For instance, infinitive крыть (kryt', "to cover") ends not in -ать or -ить, but you check a form: они кры́ют or кры́ют? Actually "крыть" is irregular or archaic? Maybe not a good example. брить (brit', "to shave") – by pattern you'd guess 2nd conj, but it's a known exception: он бреет (on breyet) with -еет (1st conj). So dictionary or memory is needed for exceptions.

Another common verb spelling issue: the ending -тся vs -ться.

2. "-тся" or "-ться"?

This is a classic spelling problem even for Russian schoolchildren. It concerns reflexive verbs (those that end in -ся or -сь in various forms).

• "-ться" (with ь) is typically the ending of the infinitive form of reflexive verbs (and also gerund maybe: e.g., улыбаясь (ulybáyas', "smiling") though that's -сь again because gerund from a vowel).
• "-тся" (without ь) is the ending of the third person singular (and sometimes plural) present or future tense of those verbs.

In other words, if the verb form has -т + -ся together because it's not an infinitive (it's actually -ет + ся or -ит + ся, etc., contracted), then you do not write the soft sign in between. If the verb form has -ть + -ся (the -ть indicates an infinitive or an unconjugated form), then you do keep the soft sign (as part of -ть).

How to decide easily: Try to rephrase or ask the question:

• If the verb answers "что делать/сделать?" (what to do/to have done?) i.e. it's an infinitive, or if it's a command like "не бояться!" (don't be afraid!) which is actually an infinitive usage as command, then it should be -ться.
• If it answers "что делает?" (what is it doing? what does he/she do?) or "что будет делать?" (what will it do?), then it's a conjugated form (3rd person) and should be "-тся".

Examples:

• (Он) улыбается (ulybáetsya, "he smiles") – This is 3rd person present of улыбаться. It ends with -ется (pronounced [улыбается]). There is no ь before the -ся part in spelling: улыбается = улыбает + ся -> thus "-тся".
• Улыбаться (ulybát'sya, "to smile") – This is the infinitive. It ends in -ться because of the infinitive -ть + ся. We spell the soft sign in.
• Как пи́шется это сло́во? (Kak píshetsya eto slovo?, "How is this word written/spelled?") – пишется is a 3rd person form (literally "is written"). No soft sign: пи́шется (from писать + -ся -> пишет + ся).
• Надо пи́саться... ("One must spell...") not a common construction. Instead: Он боится (on boítsya, "he is afraid") – ends -ится = -ится (no extra ь).
• Бояться (boyát'sya, "to be afraid (of)") – infinitive, spelled with -яться (technically боЯТЬ + СЯ, so -ться).
• Что де́лать? (Chto délat'? "What to do?") – делать (non-reflexive) but if reflexive делаться would be "to become", spelled делаться (infinitive, with ь).
• Он де́лается сме́лым. (On délaetsya smélym, "He becomes brave.") – делается (present 3rd p, so -ется, no ь).

A tricky one: (Ты) бо́ишься (boish'sya, "you are afraid"). Here "боишься" ends with -шься. The ь is in шь part (which is a separate consonant with soft sign letter). It's second person singular, which in conjugation always ends in -шь (with ь). Then plus ся gives шься. People rarely confuse that with an infinitive because infinitive would be бояться. The confusion primarily arises in distinguishing third person -тся and infinitive -ться, since in both cases you see a t and sya together. The difference is one has -т- from -ет or -ит (no ь), the other has -ть (with ь).

Simple trick often taught:

• If you can replace the -т(ся) ending with -ет or -ют (some normal conjugation ending) and the sentence still makes sense (subject he/she/it/they), then it's a finite verb and you should use -тся. E.g., слово пишется -> слово пишет (makes sense "the word writes itself"? kind of, at least grammatically, yes third person), so writes = пишет (no ь), so пишется no ь.
• If you replace it with -ть (the infinitive form) and it makes sense as "to do something", then use -ться. E.g., хочется плакать ("one wants to cry", impersonal construction) -> хотеть плакать (to want to cry) or just identify хочется comes from хотеться (infinitive with -ться) since it's impersonal "it wants to...").

For our purposes: just remember that infinitives end in -ться (e.g., делать -> делаться, видеть -> видеться, решить -> решиться (to dare, decide to), etc.), whereas third person forms end in -тся (делается, видится, решится).

3. Other verb ending notes

• Past tense: Past tense verb forms end in -л (masc), -ла (fem), -ло (neuter), -ли (plural) for most verbs. There's usually no confusion here except sometimes with spelling of the stem (some verbs drop a vowel or add -ну- etc in past). But one thing:
  • If a past tense reflexive ends in -лась, -лось, etc., remember the soft sign belongs to the suffix -сь for reflexive, not because it's feminine necessarily. E.g., она улыбалась (ulybálas' – "she was smiling") spelled -лась with soft sign, versus он улыбался (ulybálsya – "he was smiling") spelled -лся (here ь is part of -лся as well).
  • Actually, note: in -лся the "ь" is explicitly written, so it's three letters л, ь, с, я? Wait "лся" in Russian is actually written with 3 characters: л, с, я (since я in this case acts as ь + a essentially after l? Actually need to recall how -лся is spelled in Cyrillic: "он улыбался" – that is у-лы-ба-л-ся. The "ся" part is two letters: с + я. So indeed "лся" in writing is л + с + я, no extra soft sign letter because the softness is inherent as ya softens l or something? Wait no, I think I recall a confusion: after consonants, "я" = [ya] but also softens the consonant. So possibly they don't insert a separate ь in -лся because the я itself indicates the softness of л. So "он улыбался" doesn't have a separate ь in it – it's spelled улыбался (л + с + я). On the other hand, "она улыбалась" is spelled улыбалась (л + а + ь + с + ь? Actually -лась: l + a + soft sign? But that doesn't look right, maybe it's л + а + с + ь? Actually I must recall: feminine past reflexive "лась" – I think the ь (soft sign) still comes at the very end after s? Actually any -сь at the end should be the letter с + soft sign, right? Right, the reflexive suffix -сь is always spelled with the soft sign at the end when at end of word. So "она улыбалась" = улыба-ла-сь (лaсь where сь is s + soft sign).
    • So masculine past reflexive: -лся is weird because we pronounce [lsya] but we don't literally see a soft sign before я because я itself does that. This is probably too fine to elaborate here; just something to be aware of in spelling: masculine -лся is spelled with л + ся (with я), feminine -лась is spelled ла + сь (with ь at end). It's consistent though: you always write -сь or -ся as they are defined (сь at end of word, ся in middle, etc.)
• Imperatives: Imperative second person singular can end in -й (like иди – actually "иди" ends in i, not a great example; стой! ("stand!") ends in ь? Actually "стой" ends in й; дай! ends in й but spelled й, yes), or -и or nothing, or -ь for some verbs. For instance:
  • слушай ("listen!") ends with -й (actually the letter й).
  • говори ("speak!") ends with -и (vowel).
  • помни ("remember!") ends with -и.
  • иди ("go!") ends with -и.
  • ляг! ("lie down!") irregular stem.
  • поезжай ("go (vehicle)!") ends with -й.
  • сядь ("sit down!") ends with -ь (soft sign). Some imperatives from certain stems add a soft sign. E.g., будь ("be!") ends in -ь.
  • These are specific to each verb and not a single rule aside from general formation.
• Participles and gerunds spelling: Possibly advanced, but one common spelling rule:
  • The suffix -тся/ться we covered, and
  • The participles often involve -нн- vs -н- and -т- formation, which is another big area of spelling ("одно/двойное н"). For example: написанный (written, with -нн) vs раненый (wounded, with one н). This is beyond our current scope but worth noting as a tricky area for advanced learners.

Given our list from the user, the main ask was about verb endings presumably focusing on conjugation endings and the тся rule. We've covered those.

Tips for verb endings:

• Learn which conjugation a verb belongs to when you learn the verb. Many dictionaries will list the first person singular or something as a clue.
• Pay attention to stress in verb forms – sometimes the stress can shift between the stem and the ending (e.g., он звóнит vs они звоня́т). This can affect which vowel you hear strongly. For instance, звонит (he calls) is often mis-stressed by natives as звóнит (which is actually incorrect, correct stress is звонИт). Regardless, it's first conjugation (звонить is actually 2nd conjugation! oh, actually звонить is an exception? It ends in -ить but conjugation is like 2nd? Actually, звонить – я звоню, ты звонишь (so yeah second conj). So spelling "звонит" uses -ит).
• Remember the -тся/-ться trick: If you can replace it with "to ..." (infinitive), use ь. If it's "he/she/it ...", no ь.* Example: "любить – он любит – любить(ся) – он любит(ся)". Infinitive любиться vs present любится.

Common exceptions and tricky cases in Russian spelling

No set of rules is complete without exceptions and special cases. Russian is fairly systematic, but you should be aware of a few common exceptions and confusing situations that can trip you up:

• Exceptions to the "Ц rule": As mentioned, normally after ц in roots we write И (ци) except a handful of words of root origin:
  • цыга́н, цыга́нский ("gypsy", "Gypsy [adj.]"),
  • цыплёнок, цыпо́чки ("chick, chicks", and phrase на цыпочках "on tiptoe"),
  • цыц (interjection meaning "quiet! shut up!"), and related цы́кать ("to hiss 'tsyk' at someone to shut them up"). These words use ЦЫ. A mnemonic: "Цыган на цыпочках цыкнул цыплёнку: «Цыц!»" contains all of them. Other than these, assume "ци" in roots (e.g. ци́фра "digit", цирк "circus", ци́тата "quote"). In grammatical endings, remember after ц use -ы for noun/adjective plurals if appropriate (яйцо -> яйца (exception, this one uses я), but месяц -> месяцы "months"). But after ц in adjectives, often -це or -ца appears (e.g., отец -> отцо́в (gen pl) with o because stressed, except father did o, but палец (finger) -> па́льцы plural with ы? Actually "па́льцы" yes with ы since pal'tsy, even though l is soft, but after ц they put ы in plural).
• Stressed О vs Ё: Some Russian words have ё in their root, but many publications print them with е (since dots are often omitted). This can be tricky because it might violate the o/e rule or change pronunciation:
  • For example, все vs всё we mentioned. Also не́бо (sky) vs нёбо (palate) are different words, but both often written as небо without context.
  • Еще vs ещё ("still"/"more" vs "moreover" but in truth ещё is "still/yet", people often leave out the dots which can confuse beginners).
  • отсекать (to chop off) vs отсёк (chopped off, past) etc.
  • As a learner, whenever you suspect a letter might be ё, check a dictionary. Some personal names and place names have mandatory ё (like Горбачёв, Ёлка, etc.), but many common words like всё, неё, пёсий (adjective from dog, rarely used) etc. might or might not be written with dots.
• One N or Two? (Adjective vs Participle): In written Russian, there's a notorious set of rules about single vs double н in suffixed words:
  • For example стеклянный ("glass" adj.) with 2 Н, vs соломенный ("straw" adj.) with 2, but ветряный ("windy" in compounds) with 1, etc. Also писаный (written, as in "писаный красавец" – 1 N) vs написанный ("written" participle – 2 N).
  • The gist: if it's a participle or has certain suffix like -ованн-, -енн-, usually 2 Ns. If it's a simple adjective derived directly with -н-, usually 1. There are exceptions like mentioned стеклянный, деревянный, оловянный always 2.
  • This is advanced, but keep in mind as you progress.
• И or Й in Endings: Sometimes beginners confuse -ий vs -й endings:
  • For example, adjective синий ("blue") ends with -ий in masculine (синий) but some might forget and write синей. "-ей" would be either genitive of something or just wrong in nominative.
  • Masc. adjectives typically end in -ый or -ий (or -ой if stressed like большой). If you hear [iy] at the end, it's likely -ий (two letters). -й by itself is usually after a vowel (e.g., такой ends in -ой which is one letter but pronounced [oj]).
  • Words like музей end in -ей but that's a noun not an adjective.
• Foreign words: They sometimes break rules:
  • А́лфавит (alfavit, "alphabet") is often pronounced [алфавит] not [алфавит] with stress on last, but spelled with и after ф (no issue).
  • ко́фе (kofe, "coffee") is masculine despite looking like -е ending word (anomaly in gender, not spelling).
  • Names like Цюрих (Tsürih, "Zurich") start with Цю, which defies "цу/цу" rule because ц followed by ю normally wouldn't happen in native words (should be цу or цю only in foreign combos, which it is foreign).
  • Чили (Chile) starts with Chi but fine, Чехия (Chekhiya, "Czechia") uses Che as expected.
• Transliterations can cause odd letters: e.g., Вашингтон (Vashington) has sh + i even though w is v and a etc, it's because of English "Washington" the o becomes о etc.
• Words that sound similar, spelled different:
  • тоже ("also") vs то же ("the same ..."): in the first, ж is followed by e but pronounced [то́же]; in second, it's separate words.
  • заго́ра́ть (zagorát', "to sunbathe") vs загора́ть(ся) with different stress or meaning.
  • company names or foreign terms might insert ь or ъ unexpectedly depending on transliteration (e.g., Dostoevsky is Достоевский no issue, but M&M's gets written "М&М’с" or something weird? Eh irrelevant).
• Even native speakers make mistakes with:
  • -тся/-ться (we discussed).
  • Н/NН in participles/adjectives.
  • Writing жи-/ши- with incorrect vowel (some kids might mistakenly write ы, but they learn quickly).
  • Using ь or ъ correctly, e.g., writing сЬесть instead of съесть is a common learner error.
  • Words like пожалуйста ("please") – it's one word, not two, and with ж (po-zhaluysta).
  • не vs ни in some constructs (spelling of negative particles, e.g., ни о ком separate issue).
  • только vs толька (only spelled о not a, but pronounced [то́лька]).

Finally, a big exception concept: "Исключения из правил" – certain words are just irregular in spelling historically:

• же́нщина (zhenshchina, "woman") – one might question why е after ж when stressed? Actually stress is on first e, second syllable still e because of rule? It's correct though.
• ассорти́ (assorti, "assorted") – double s from French, etc.
• свекла often pronounced "svekla" but many spell "свёкла" with ё and pronounce [svyókla].
• икра́ (ikrá, "caviar") vs икра́ ("calf (of leg)"), just homographs.

The list can go on, but those above are the main ones.

Practical Tips for Handling Exceptions:

• When learning new vocabulary, note any unusual spellings (write them down, say them aloud).
• Use mnemonics for tricky words. For example, to remember цыган with "ы", recall the phrase about the gypsy (цыган).
• Refer to authoritative sources (like Gramota.ru or a good textbook) for lists of exceptions.
• Practice writing words to build muscle memory for their spelling.
• If you catch yourself hesitating on a word, look it up – over time you'll eliminate those doubt cases.

Tips for mastering Russian spelling

Learning these rules might seem daunting, but here are some practical tips to help you internalize Russian spelling:

• Memorize the key rhymes and rules: Short phrases like "жи-ши пиши с И" ("zhi and shi – write with И, not Ы"), "ча-ща с А" ("cha and shcha - write with А, not Я "(ya)."), "чу-щу с У" ("chu and schu - write with У, not Ю"), and "не пишем О после шипящих в безударном слоге" ("We do not write the letter "О" after hissing consonants (ж, ч, ш, щ) in an unstressed syllable, but we write the letter "Е") can be extremely helpful. Recite them until they stick. They are the bread-and-butter of Russian orthography.
• Listen and pay attention to stress: Always learn where the stress in a word falls. Mark stress in your vocabulary lists. Knowing stress helps you choose the correct vowel (О or Е, and also helps identify vowel reduction patterns).
• Learn by word families: Russian spelling is morphological. If you learn one form of a word (say, the dictionary form) along with a few related forms (plural, different case, etc.), you'll see how the spelling remains consistent even when pronunciation changes. This can reinforce why a word is spelled a certain way. For instance, remember водá (water) is spelled with O because you also know во́ды (waters) where O is pronounced clearly.
• Use a good dictionary or spelling app: When in doubt, look it up. Even native speakers use орфографические словари (spelling dictionaries) or websites like Gramota.ru to check tricky words. Over time, you’ll need to do this less and less.
• Practice with dictations: It might sound old-fashioned, but doing dictation exercises can sharpen your spelling ear. Listen (or have someone read) and write down sentences, then check against the correct text. This helps especially with unstressed vowels and -тся/-ться type distinctions.
• Write in Russian regularly: Keeping a journal or doing writing prompts in Russian will inevitably highlight which spellings you’re unsure of. Each time you have to hesitate and think “is it и or ы here?”, it’s an opportunity to learn that word’s spelling rule or pattern.
• Learn the small list of verb conjugation exceptions: e.g., брить, стелить are 1st conjugation (so ты бреешь, not брИешь), while видеть, слышать, держать, тереть, etc. follow 2nd conjugation (ты видишь, not видешь). A tutor or textbook can provide these lists. It's worth memorizing them since they are few.
• Double-check homophones and particles: Words like то же vs тоже, что бы vs чтобы, как будто (two words) vs будто have space or spelling differences that are easy to mix up. As you encounter these in context, take a second to note the spelling.
• Don’t be afraid of Ё: If you're writing for yourself or learning, write ё whenever it's supposed to be there. This will reinforce correct reading and pronunciation in your mind. You can gradually learn where it's optional, but as a learner, using ё is helpful.
• Ask for feedback: If you have a Russian teacher or friend, ask them to point out any spelling mistakes and explain the rule if possible. Corrections in context are powerful.